A report on the UK Dairy
Industry
Calves – Unwanted By-Products
Although cows would naturally suckle their calves for nine months to a year,
dairy calves are taken away from their mothers within one to three days
of birth – to ensure that as much milk as possible is available for sale
(7, 22). The strong bond that is formed between mother and calf in the first
few hours after birth makes this enforced separation a very traumatic experience
(7, 27). Both mother and calf bellow loudly after separation and respond
to each other’s calls by moving toward the sound, with calves able
to distinguish their own mother’s calls within 24 hours of birth (27).
But this mental anguish is only the beginning of the calves’ troubles.
Female Calves
Half of the female calves born each year will be pure dairy breed calves
who will enter the dairy herd, replacing the 25% of cows who are culled every
year because they are worn out (3, 37). They are allowed to suckle from their
mothers for the first day of life so that they receive the antibody rich
milk, known as colostrum, which she produces immediately after calving and
which is essential for the calves’ immune system (3, 7). They are then
separated from their mothers and fed on commercial milk replacer, either
from an artificial teat or from a bucket (3, 7). Although the main motivation
for removing the calves is financial – farmers want to sell as much
of the milk as possible – decades of genetic manipulation have resulted
in such hugely distorted udders that it is difficult for calves to find and
reach the teat, as illustrated in Fig. 13. Where this is a problem farmers
will remove the calves within a few hours of birth and feed them their mother’s
colostrum from a bucket (34).
In the first few weeks of life calves, like all infants, are very susceptible
to disease, with up to six per cent of calves born each year dying before
one month old (40). Diarrhoea (known as scours in the farming sector) is
the main factor contributing to these deaths and is often caused by low-quality
or incorrectly prepared milk replacer (3, 40). For this reason artificially-reared
calves are weaned completely onto solid food by four to five weeks of age,
much sooner than in the wild where they would continue to suckle for up to
12 months (3, 7).
Under the Welfare of Farmed Animals (England) Regulations 2000, calves may
be housed in individual stalls or hutches, either indoor or outdoor, until
they are eight weeks old (40). But, even at this young age, healthy calves
are very energetic and need to play and socialise with other calves (7).
Housing in individual stalls or hutches denies them this vital exercise and
social contact, as illustrated in Fig 14. Group housing, which all calves
must be moved to after eight weeks of age, allows more natural social behaviour
and greater opportunity for exercise and play, but also increases the risk
of airborne diseases such as pneumonia – the most common disease of
weaned calves (3, 40). Essentially, it is impossible to artificially rear
calves in a way which fulfils their natural needs and behaviours without
compromising their health.
If the calves are to replace cows on the farm where they are born, they
will be turned out to pasture when a few months old, weather permitting,
but are kept separate from older animals until at least six months old to
reduce the risk of disease (3, 40). Between 15 and 18 months old they will
be inseminated, giving birth to their first calf nine months later (3). They
will then have 24-72 hours to revel in the joys of motherhood before their
calf is taken away and they begin their gruelling life as a milk machine.
Female calves who are surplus to requirements on their birth farm will be
sold on to other dairy farms, usually through a livestock market - illustrated
in Fig 15 (40). According to The Welfare of Animals at Markets Order 1990, calves
as young as seven days old may be brought to market and sold (34).
These young calves may travel several hundred kilometers from farm to market
and then on to the purchasing farm. This is not only very stressful for the
calves but also exposes them to new pathogens which they have no resistance
to, leading to an increased risk of disease (40).
The other half of females born each year will be dairy/beef crosses who
are sold on, again through a livestock market, and reared for beef in a semi-intensive
system (37). These systems involve grazing cattle outside in the summer and
housing them during the winter, with slaughter age varying from 15-24 months.
Male Calves
Male calves will never produce milk and therefore are of no use to a dairy farmer.
Around
half of the male calves born on British dairy farms are pure dairy
calves while the other half are dairy/beef crosses (37). All of the
dairy/beef crosses will be removed from their mothers after a couple of
days and housed in stalls or hutches and fed milk replacer just like
female calves. Most will also be sold on to semi-intensive beef farms
through livestock markets, just like female dairy/beef cross
calves.
Approximately 50 per cent of the pure dairy
males will also be reared for beef, but as they will only produce ‘low
quality’ beef they are raised in intensive systems (7, 33, 37). After
being separated from their mothers they are confined in buildings and
yards for most of their lives – which is usually just over one year (7,
33). High mortality rates in these systems are common as it is not
financially worthwhile for farmers to strive to keep them alive (7).
The
other 50 per cent of male pure dairy calves, or 25 per cent of all male
calves born each year, are either raised for veal or shot shortly after
birth – the unwanted by-products of milk production (34, 37).
Fig. 16. Male dairy/beef cross calves will be raised for beef in a semi-intensive
system where they will be kept in overcrowded sheds such as this for
six months of the year
The Veal Industry
All
calves raised for veal worldwide are male off-casts from the dairy
industry. In some countries, such as the USA – from which we import
large quantities of butter and ice cream – veal crates are the
predominant rearing system (1, 7). These tiny wooden crates are so
narrow that the calves cannot turn around for most of their lives,
depriving them of exercise and preventing normal muscle development –
to keep their flesh supple. They are also fed an iron-deficient diet to
produce the anaemic ‘white’ veal prized by gourmets. Calves kept in
these conditions suffer from high incidences of infectious disease and
develop stereotypical behaviour patterns such as tongue rolling,
crate-licking or mutual tongue sucking (6, 7).
The veal
crate was banned throughout Europe in 2007, but welfare regulations are
lower in most European countries than in the UK. In both the UK and
Europe calves often spend the first eight weeks of their lives in small
individual pens. All calves will be group housed after eight weeks of
age, however EU regulations do not provide group housed calves with as
much space as UK law requires (see Table 1) (63,65).
Under EU law farmers are not obligated to provide bedding for calves,
as they are in the UK (63, 65). This is despite the European
Commission’s expert Scientific Veterinary Committee’s (SVC) advice in
1995 that “The welfare of calves is very poor when they are kept . .
. (with) no bedding or other material to manipulate” (66). And
although EU farmers have to ensure calves are fed a nutritionally
adequate diet with a minimum daily ration of fibrous food, the quantity
of fibrous food is less than in the UK (a minimum of 50g at two weeks
to 250g at 20 weeks) (63,65).
The European Commission’s expert Scientific Veterinary Committee concluded in their 1995 Report on the Welfare of Calves that:
“The
best conditions for rearing young calves involve leaving the calf with
the mother in a circumstance where the calf can suckle and can
subsequently graze and interact with other calves” (66).
No dairy calves are allowed to enjoy these conditions.
Since the movement ban was lifted in 2006 (the rest of Europe had
banned the import of cattle from Britain because of the bovine
spongiform encephalopathy epidemic) it is estimated that up to 500, 000
males calves have been exported to continental veal farms – to live
their short lives in conditions that would be illegal in the UK.
In
March 2006, the EU lifted the ban on British beef and cattle imports,
paving the way for live calf exports to resume. On May 5 2006, the
first shipment of live calves left the UK for over a decade, destined
for veal farms in Belgium, France and the Netherlands (see Continental
Veal Production). Since then tens of thousands of calves have been
exported, with the industry anticipating a return to pre-ban numbers by
the end of 2006.
Fig.
17. Male dairy calves are useless to dairy farmers. Many are
transported long distances to Continental veal farms at only two weeks
old, while others are simply shot at birth.
UK Veal Production
A small number of male pure dairy calves, around 20,000 a year, are
raised in the UK for rose veal (3). From birth, they must be fed a diet
which contains sufficient iron to avoid anaemia (7, 63). From two weeks
old they must also be provided with a daily ration of fibrous food to
permit normal rumen development (a minimum of 100g at two weeks old to
a minimum of 250g at 20 weeks) (7, 63). UK law also requires calves to
be provided with bedding, both in solitary pens and group housing, to
help reduce stereotypical behaviour (63). Rose veal calves are
slaughtered between one and seven months of age. The market for veal in
the UK, even that which is promoted as ‘welfare-friendly’, remains
small and seems unlikely to grow in the near future (3, 7). Unwanted Calves
For
the ten years while the movement ban was in place farmers routinely
shot their calves within days of birth as they were unable to sell them
abroad (36).
Since the movement ban has been lifted some
farmers have found it difficult to find buyers for their calves and it
is estimated that up to 150,000 British calves are still shot within
days of birth annually (69).
Calf Transport
Few
dairy calves live out their short life on their birth farm. Most dairy
farmers will keep a percentage of female calves born each year to rear
as replacements for worn out cows and the rest of the calves will be
sold. The majority of these calves will be sent to livestock markets
and auctioned off, often involving lengthy journeys to market and on to
the purchasing farms. For many unfortunate male calves this means long
journeys to veal farms in Belgium, France and the Netherlands.
According
to the Welfare of Animals at Markets Order 1990, calves as young as
seven days old may be brought to market and sold (34). While all farmed
animals suffer during transport, young calves (less than four weeks
old) are particularly vulnerable to transport stress due to their naïve
immune system and lack of exposure to new environments (67).
‘Shipping
fever’ (a term used to describe a range of diseases caused by
respiratory viruses) and diarrhoea are common problems in transported
calves and contribute significantly to calf deaths (67). Calves less
than two weeks old are particularly susceptible and can suffer
mortality rates greater than 20 per cent following transport (68).
Young calves are also more vulnerable to tissue damage during
transport, with many calves (up to 50 per cent) suffering from bruised
stifles (knee joints) (68).
Research conducted by Dr T Knowles of Bristol University in 1995 concluded that:
“Young
calves are not well adapted to cope with transport and marketing, often
suffering relatively high rates of morbidity and mortality, both
during, and in the few weeks immediately following transport ...
Comparatively few normal calves actually die during transport but they
succumb, usually within four weeks, to secondary disease as a
consequence of their inability to respond appropriately to
transport” .
Mutilations
Fig.
18. Most dairy calves, both males and females, have their horn buds burned
with a hot iron to prevent them growing, causing severe pain which can last
for several hours.
Disbudding: Most calves raised for dairy and beef are disbudded
to prevent the growth of horns and minimise the risk of cattle injuring
each other in modern intensive rearing systems (3). This can be done by burning
the horn bud with a hot iron (cautery disbudding) or by applying a caustic
paste which erodes the horn bud (chemical disbudding) (3, 41). Cautery
disbudding causes severe pain which can last for several hours, with low-grade
pain and sensitivity continuing for at least 24 hours (41). Under the Protection
of Animals (Anaesthetics) Act 1954/1964, it can only be performed on calves
under two months old and a local anaesthetic must be used (34). Chemical
disbudding is even more painful and may only be performed on calves in
the first week of life, however local anaesthetic is not required (34,
41). The caustic paste can also leak onto surrounding skin or into the
eyes, causing immense pain (41).
Castration: Male calves sold or raised for beef may be
castrated to prevent aggression (3).
According to DEFRA, three methods can be used to castrate calves in the
UK (34):
- A rubber ring or other device can be applied to calves under one week
old to restrict the flow of blood to the testicles, which shrivel and drop
off within a few weeks. No anaesthetic is required.
- The spermatic cords of calves under two months old can be crushed using
an instrument similar to pliers (called a burdizzo, pictured below). No
anaesthetic is required.
- Surgical castration by a vet, under general anaesthetic, can be performed
on calves of any age.
Fig. 19. Burdizzo ‘bloodless’ castrators
are used to crush the spermatic cords of young male bulls without anaesthetic
According to the FAWC, all three methods cause acute pain – regardless
of the age of the calf (3). Complications and infection at the site of castration
can also occur (3). In their March 2004 newsletter, the Highgate Veterinary
Surgery in Kendal highlighted the problems arising from the use of rusty
burdizzo castrators: ‘Rusty burdizzos were used to castrate 20 stirks
(bullocks) about a month ago. Half of these animals now have scrotal abscesses,
some of which have burst leaving gaping holes. The nippers had broken the
skin and allowed infection into the dying testicle’ (42).
Supernumerary Teats: Female calves are
commonly born with one or two small, surplus teats on the udder (3). Although
not harmful, these ‘supernumerary teats’ are routinely removed
from dairy calves because they are ‘unsightly’ and make the
animal less saleable, or, if located near the base of a true teat, may
interfere with placement of the teat cup during milking (43). Up until
three months of age these teats may be cut off using sharp scissors without
anaesthetic (3, 34). After this age they must be removed by a veterinary
surgeon (3, 34).
According to DEFRA, castration, disbudding and removal of excess teats are
all stressful procedures which can reduce disease resistance in young calves
(40).
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Click
here for a video clip of newborn calves in hutches)
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